Enron Collapse

What are the main reasons that Enron collapsed? I think the reasons for the collapse are three fold. Firstly Enron’s accounting practices(mark to market accounting- companies estimate how much revenue a deal is going to bring in and state that number in their earnings the moment the contract is signed) Its managements goal was to maintain the appearance of value by always having rising stock prices rather than focus on creating real value for the company.Secondly its reliance on Special Purpose Entities to constantly raise capital without increasing its indebtedness. It allowed losses to be kept off the books while assets to be stated. Enron had its own executives manage these partnerships and would make the deals work by guaranteeing that if whatever they had to sell off declined in value, enron would make up the difference in its own stock. So basically it was selling part of itself to itself.It was these financial bolications to the SPE’s that ended up triggering the collapse. Thirdly its lack of a truly independent auditor to stand up to Enron ultimately caused its downfall. 2. Do you think Enron could have survived? I think if the company had acted internally when Sharon Watkins reported suspicious accounting, and dealt with it internally , Im sure the share prices would have dropped upon reporting of the actual financials but maybe the company could have avoided bankruptcy. 3.Crisis Management Consultant of Arthur Anderson, what would your advice be to the CEO? I think I would have admitted the absurdity of performing both auditing and consulting functions I maybe would have focused on the hiring of of Arthur anderson employees as enron employees, who then managed the affairs of their old colleagues. Ethical lines got blurred. Then use this platform to lead the industry to reforms and act oversear of how to avoid their mistakes and breakdowns of communication within their corporation.

Case Study Analysis Lincoln Electric: Venturing Abroad Essay

Lincoln Electric (LE) has been a producer of electrical and welding technology products since the late 1800’s. The company remained primarily a family and employee held company until 1995, then approximately 40% of its equity went to the public. James Lincoln, one of the founders, developed unique management techniques that effectively motivated the employees. These management techniques were implemented as an unusual (for the era) structure of compensation and benefits called â€Å"incentive management†. The incentive management system consisted of four key areas: factory jobs based solely on piecework output; a year-end bonus that could equal or exceeded an individual’s regular pay; guaranteed employment; and limited benefits. Management successors to James Lincoln continued with this successful philosophy even during hard times. This incentive system provided Lincoln Electric with a significant competitive advantage over its domestic competitors. This incentive system plus the bonus allowed Lincoln employees to earn more than their counterparts at other firms, which contributes to employee motivation. One additional aspect of Lincoln’s incentive system was that of limited benefits. James Lincoln developed a system of minimal company paid benefits, where he rationalized that; fewer benefits would equate more funds available for employee bonus and compensation. The successful incentive program and participative management style provided an environment where a Lincoln plant could produce many times (up to three times-with half the personnel) that of a similar manufacturing plant. The employee involvement program and the incentive program at Lincoln were significant contributors to their capability to maintain a solid reputation as a high quality producer, which has driven brand loyalty. When combined with the approachable and participative management style, Lincoln’s culture was able to continuously leverage changes from their employees. The management at Lincoln provided an environment where employees were free to make suggestions or complaints, these ideas became changes and the changes turned into innovations. Such as manufacturing equipment modifications that would run, two to three times their original rate. Lincoln continues to be profitable by significant contributions of these production efficiencies. An increase in production rates (with the same or less resources) equates directly to: higher returns on investments, lower  cost of goods sold, and the ability to do more with less (especially during economic challenges). In general, there is an entrepreneurial attitude at LE and the ability to harvest these innovations is Lincoln’s true competitive advantage. As of 1995, Lincoln Electric controlled 36% of the $1.5 billon U.S. market for weldin g equipment and supplies, where it is considered the leading competitor. The Lincoln Electric Company possesses financial stability, they have recently brought their debt under control as shown in Appendix B-Brief Financial Analysis, which shows an improving debt trend (current, quick, debt to assets, and debt to equity ratios) this is considered an enabling item when embarking upon a new international venture, financial/resources to overcome potential problems. In addition, Lincoln has experienced a strong recovery illustrated by the trends detailed on the net sales and income after taxes charts shown in Appendix B-Brief Financial Analysis. Lincoln will have to overcome its limited success in their prior international ventures, evident by the closures of plants in Germany, Japan, Venezuela, and Brazil. Some of this limited success was due to their lack on international experience and a failure to provide assistance, â€Å"sink or swim† corporate attitude. LE might not have been looking at a long-term view and may have given up on these plants too early. Similar domestic ventures take on the average seven years before becoming profitable. Additional reasons for early international failures was the lack of contingency planning in the form of no corporate support, advice or direction. Another shortcoming of their early international ventures is that Lincoln attempted to apply its incentive management universally to all countries/cultures. They failed to understand the importance of tailoring rewards and incentives for specific countries/cultures. Key elements of the first wave of LE’s international ventures are: domestic operations accounted for 85% of the worldwide production and nearly all new product development until the late 1980’s, universal application of the â€Å"incentive management programs†, and in general the corporation paid little attention to there international divisions. However, as of 1996, Lincoln  re-organized its international ventures by naming a president for each of the five regions, this is a demonstration of a new emphasis and focus on the international ventures from LE. In additional to the CEO having a planned oversight into the expansion there will be council consisting of each of these presidents to plan, integrate and implement global strategies. The compensation for these presidents will also include interregional cooperation. Both of these efforts address key Lincoln weakness from there prior international ventures of: â€Å"sink or swim† corporate attitude and interregional destructive competition. One final item is that Lincoln realized that in the second wave of international expansion true understanding of a country/culture is as important as technological skills. First, Lincoln must continue to utilize its successful incentive and management philosophy formula for employees in the U.S. The domestic operations provide the financial/resource foundation or enabler for continued global expansion, but with no loss of focus on the domestic operation. Lincoln should complete a product structure analysis to determine which plant (domestic or international) should build which product. This analysis should consider all external environmental (particularly political) factors and ensure the company’s strategies for long term and short term goals are a significant part of the analysis. A key roadblock to the expansion into Indonesia is the political environment. The civil unrest and an uncertain future government must be watched and analyzed with great care. A meeting should immediately be setup with the local government to present Lincoln’s long-term strategy. However, prior to this meeting Lincoln must conduct extensive research into the stability, history and any significant background information about the current government and then decide how to approach this potentially volatile situation. Also Lincoln must establish contingency plans should the government become a problem and then be continuously adjusting these contingency plans as the situation changes. One threat to Lincoln’s expansion plan to enter the stick welding consumables markets is that it is dominated by two other multinational firms (see Appendix A-Consumables Market); they control approximately 60% of this market. Once again, Lincoln must conduct continuous extensive market  research to determine risk, provide data for their living short-term and long-term tactical and strategic plans. This marketing research will also support the development of Lincoln’s entry strategies. Once, the production focus areas are defined Lincoln should develop incentives to ensure cooperation with no destructive competition between regions, interregional management compensation will help. A consistent set of financial metrics must be developed and utilized to determine regional performance; each region will be compared in the same manner. Lincoln must also ensure that start-ups be provided a â€Å"safety net† of sorts that utilizes resources/innovations to combat obstacles that would prevent success. Another recommendation is to collect lesson’s learned on the failed European operations, ensure that the same situations are not repeated in Asia/Indonesia. The regional president’s council will help to ensure success, however control in key decisions should be left to the corporation. A joint venture in Indonesia is the best way to enter. Tira’s relationship with high level government officials is very important due to the political situation. SSHJ has the financial strength that Tira does not. Lincoln should go into a joint venture with both Tira and SSHJ since each firm brings complementary strengths. This joint venture must be carefully crafted; compensation will be direct as a partnership type between SSHJ and Tira, where incentives exist to ensure mutual success. An agreement with SSHJ to build a new factory should be completed and support for a low interest loan to help Tira with maintaining Lincoln inventory. This joint venture will be carefully controlled and monitored by Lincoln and they will maintain the maximum amount of ownership allowed by Indonesian law. As mention previously, Lincoln’s competitive edge is its ability to tap into employee innovative talents and then to quickly implement them. Lincoln should conduct cultural research int o what types of rewards apply to the Indonesian culture and then custom design an incentive system that utilizes these rewards. The successful implementation of this similar formula of corporate culture and incentives will allow Lincoln once again to continuously improve through employee innovations. The custom designed incentive reward may be: benefits on a rising scale; additional vacation/compensation time; or company ownership as a stock option plan instead of the bonus/compensation plan used in the U.S. Lincoln should  continue to leverage their brand reputation/loyalty, and leverage their ability to produce at a lower cost (through its successful innovation processes) and to break into this new market; also, price competition should be avoided as an entry strategy. Instead, compete on product value. The planned entry strategy into the stick welding consumables is the right direction, the growth rate and potential market is very attractive, however the entry strategy must also be developed to counter whatever defensive or offensive moves the other controlling multinational firms do to prevent Lincoln from gaining market share. Finally, Lincoln’s long-term strategies must be compatible with achievable goals that allow sufficient time (seven to ten years) to for the Indonesian venture to fully develop profitably.

Characteristics of a good citizen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Characteristics of a good citizen - Essay Example Another vital responsibility is by participating in elections and exercising their right to vote. They have to show responsibility because it is a requirement for democratic governments (Jackson 2013). To be a good citizen, an individual should participate in all community activities at all times and be involved in the betterment of the lives of other citizens. Participation in community requires people to know what is happening in the neighborhood and report anything suspicious to the authorities. To be a good citizen, one also needs to be civically active and obey laws all the time. All these actions are vital because they make the society safe and a better place to live (Jacques 2011). The actions are a sign of active citizenship, and they facilitate governance at all levels of the society. Active citizenship is a significant step towards a healthy nation. Crime tends to reduce because criminals cannot thrive in a community that reports wrongdoers and suspicious people to the law enforcers. There are also significant economic gains when people contribute their efforts to society developments. There is also increased peace because people get contented with the leaders they choose. Jackson, R. (2013, December 5). Government of the People: The Role of the Citizen. Retrieved June 26, 2015, from

Compare and Contrast a Big College Campus to a Small College Campus Essay

Compare and Contrast a Big College Campus to a Small College Campus - Essay Example These are probably the primary things that most new college students think about. But there are more factors that need to be considered. One of these important factors is the size of the college. Aside from a school’s academic reputation, the size of the student body may play the largest role in establishing the characteristics of a college. School size tends to determine everything from class size to cost of tuition. Then there are post-graduation considerations such as the size of the alumni support system and career placement services. When choosing between going to a large college or a small college, it is important to compare them side by side in some very important categories. Starting with academic considerations, class size seems to be a big factor in some student’s preferences for a small college. Attending beginning classes for a new student can be intimidating. At large state colleges, general education classes are often scheduled during the first semester fo r incoming freshmen. The problem with this is these classes often have horrible teacher to student ratios. Three hundred students in an auditorium with one professor for Psych 101 is not an ideal situation for many college freshmen. This first year is time full of conflicting emotions and difficult adjustments. Unfortunately, large schools seem to think that this is the perfect time to put students in classes where they have little or no chance of getting individualized attention from a professor because there are so many students that need help. Smaller colleges have small class sizes for even general education classes. This fosters an atmosphere of learning and growing together. Easy access to professors ensures that more learning can take place and answers can be given to student questions in a timely manner. Small colleges and small class sizes provide better spaces to achieve academic growth and potential. Socially, smaller colleges offer a more intimate experience than large c olleges. Big state funded schools tend to like spectacle and over-the-top extravaganzas. These can be truly entertaining at times. Homecoming parties, football tailgating and parades all mix with crazy fraternity and sorority fun at these schools on a grand scale. There is nothing wrong with having fun at school, but the type of fun and atmosphere that comes from it is different at a small school than it is at a large school. A small college gives the opportunity to do all of the things you can do at a large school on a smaller scale. There are plenty of parties, mixers and sporting events. What is not possible is to watch the football team play on ESPN for a national championship. But that doesn’t mean that sports are not important. If anything, the rivalries in sports like field hockey and rugby at smaller schools is even more intense than at large national schools because it is more personal. With small student populations, it is more likely that you actually know a person on the field that is competing in the event. They are more than some person you see on TV or on a poster in the school bookstore. They are more likely to be the person sitting next to you in English Composition class if you attend a small college. Another big difference between large schools and small colleges is the type of service you receive from administration. In a large school, each student is little more than a number. If there is any sort of problem that needs to be sorted out, going to the administration building can be a nightmare at

Math Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Math - Lab Report Example Grade Book button contains grades of the completed quizzes and tests. Expand Chapter content button it populates more tabs with the heading of the chapters and their details. Expand Tools of Success button contain the helping tools, help, support and suggestions. Multimedia Library Button Contains access to multimedia resources available for our textbooks. Pearson Tutor Service contains access to Pearson Tutor Services for personalized, detailed assistance with what we are learning. Discussion button currently doesn’t contain anything right now but it the place where students can discuss issues in their assignments. Expand Course Tools menu to access item such as email, the Class Live chat environment, document sharing, and instructor tools. In homework section, homework for different chapters is placed in different icons buttons. Assignments for different chapters are also accessible in this section. This section also contains questions for chapters and can provide help in solving these questions. For example, the interactive graphic tools is provided in Chapter 1 Homework Objective 1 question 1, by which student can easily solve such questions. Te basic aim of this section is to provide various tools that can be utilised while solving questions. For example the graphic calculator can be utilized while working with a data set. It requires entering the data and then using the calculator various statistical analyses can be done on the given data set and all such info is provided in the ‘Graphing Calculator Help’ and the ‘review’ tab provides summarised content that may be needed while dealing with mathematical problems. ‘Support for technology’ tab also includes useful guides for using the graphic calculator and working on MS Excel. ‘The extended applications tab provides various case studies where the mathematical tools are utilised for solving problems in the real world. The mathematical application in the management

Computer Games Improves motivation in Elementary School Math Research Paper

Computer Games Improves motivation in Elementary School Math - Research Paper Example According to Azevedo (2005), mathematics or math games are fun activities. They usually encourage motivation, call for deep thinking, require both chance and skills, and provide multiple approaches to problem solving. These games implement certain mathematical strategies and skills by leveraging the natural inclination of the student to play. The games can either be played by an individual, a small or large group; it can be cooperative and/or competitive (Azevedo, 2005). Mathematical games have been proved to have some rewarding impacts to students. Azevedo (2005) argues that games are usually part of after-school activities. Math games can provide the students with suitable contexts for developing both socially and mathematically. In addition, Shin, Sutherland, Norris & Soloway (2012) affirm that students can explore and discuss new strategies with their peers and use these strategies to solve and calculate mathematical problems. Furthermore, math games allow the students to partici pate at a level of their choice and build on their knowledge and understanding. There exists limited empirical literature that supports the hypothesis with most of those advocating for the technique being the game developers and investors, which makes the supporting results relatively biased (Guha & Leonard, 2002). Review of Literature There have been many studies showing how computer games find their place at the elementary school class and students. In order to support the hypothesis that computer games improve motivation in learning mathematics in elementary school, four studies from different sources are considered. The first study examined the practice of computer games in a 4th and 5th graders’ summer school math program. This study focused on the students’ motivation with computer games and learning environment based on such games and on how game-playing improved students’ math learning. This study indicated that using computer games in math is being more simplistic than commercial (Ke, 2008). Moreover, the findings of the study put emphasis on the task of designing appropriate activities that will be connected with computer games to enhance student motivation such as collaborative activities. The limitations occurred in the mentioned study show that this is a case study of one particular set of learning games with a small amount of students who were from the same school although being rather diverse in many characteristics such as gender, socio-economic status, math abilities, etc. There have to be exercised cautions when generalizing the study ?ndings to show the interaction between other types of games and student population of different characteristics. Coming back to our hypothesis, I can say that it is supported. Generally, this study showed that all participants were excited about the games they were offered to play. It means they were motivated to learn math by playing this computer game. The next study by Kebritchi, Hirumi & Bai (2010) examined the effect of 3-D games in the field of mathematics. The crucial questions that this study offered to examine were related to the effects 3-D computer games had on students' mathematics motivation and achievement. Furthermore, the

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Research Paper

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Research Paper Example There are unique behaviors associated with ADHD. Some of these include difficulties in maintaining focus, becoming easily distracted, a child being easily bored, difficulties in becoming organized and completing a specific task, daydreaming etc. Research indicates that ferritin is one of the major contributors to these behavioral problems that are reported by both the teachers and parents. Iron contributes largely towards brain development. As a result, ADHD has been potentially linked with ID for different reasons. First, it is a disorder that appears during early childhood periods. Second, studies have linked ADHD to dopaminergic dysfunction. Nevertheless, iron supplements were found to have been attenuating ADHD symptoms in children with ID. There have been different opinions of if oral contraceptives affect bone density in reproductive-aged women. Research was conducted and a conclusion was reached that oral contraceptives have no change on the bone density therefore erasing fears that these drugs might have been causing ADHD in children In conclusion, iron is an important component in brain development of a child. In addition, it contributes heavily to the formation of body neurons. As a result, expectant mothers are expected to take a balanced diet in order to supply the fetus with enough iron.

Describe the properties and functions of the smooth, skeletal and Assignment

Describe the properties and functions of the smooth, skeletal and cardiac muscle. (b)Explain the sliding filament hypothesis of - Assignment Example The arrangement of these cells to form a muscle tissue is also unique as they do not form a syncytium but they contract individually or as group of cells. This property of smooth muscle allows it to contract slowly in a wave like motion making it a suitable for gastrointestinal tract. Circular and longitudinal muscles are two smooth muscles found throughout the GIT tract and are responsible for peristalsis. Smooth muscles also line the walls of the blood vessels. They play an important role, especially in the arterioles, by constricting or dilating the blood vessel thereby controlling the flow of blood. Smooth muscles are also crucial in bigger blood vessels, such as aorta, and enable them to withstand high pressure generated during systole or ventricular contraction. (Clark, 2005, p. 139) Skeletal Muscle: These are the muscles under voluntary control. Skeletal muscle is also sometimes referred to as striated muscle but this term should be avoided as cardiac muscle is also a striated muscle and leads to ambiguity. A cell of skeletal muscle is very long, up to 30cm in length, and has a cylindrical shape. The cross section size of these cells is about 10-100 micrometer. It is not surprising that cell of this length has multiple nuclei for support and survival. But these nuclei are not located at the center and rather aligned at the periphery. This is because the contractile components in the cell cytoplasm push these nuclei towards the call border. Skeleton muscles form bulk of a human body and perform various functions. They are essential for locomotion and to perform any movement of the body. Although, skeletal muscles are mostly under voluntary control they also take part in a reflex arc that does not involve the higher centers and, therefore, is an involuntary process. The contractions produced by skeletal muscles are forceful and quick as compared to the smooth muscle. (Clark, 2005, p. 139) Cardiac Muscle: Cardiac muscle is a specialized tissue perfectly ada pted to perform its function. It is the only muscle that is found in the heart. A very special property of a cardiac muscle is that is can contract on its own which mean it does not require an external stimulation. Certain specialized cardiac cells found in the sinus node, atrioventricular node and conducting fibers are capable of initiating an action potential and set up a particular rhythm for contraction of surrounding muscle cells. Due to these properties they are referred to as pace makers of the heart. Cardiac cells are arranged in a syncytium that helps them in conducting the electrical signals more efficiently. Moreover, these cells are joined to each other by special intercalated disks. These intercalated disks are actually fused cell membranes with gap junctions. Gap junctions allow fast sharing of cytoplasmic contents and help in the progression of electrical signals across this syncytium. The function of cardiac muscle is to set up its own rhythm and provide force requir ed to pump blood throughout body’s circulation. Sliding filament hypothesis of muscle contraction: The cytoskeleton and its arrangement are unique in myofibers as compared to other places in our body. The entire length of myofiber is studded in the center with large structures called myofibrils. These myofibrils are composed of two types of myofilaments; thick myofilaments and thin myofilaments. Thick myofilaments are made up of a protein called myosin. This protein has a special shape that is vital for its

A SCENARIO BASED ESSAY Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A SCENARIO BASED - Essay Example The clincials point out a sense of attitude from the student, their personality, bedside manner and their work ethic. This also gives the student a chance to see whether they like working with patients in certain settings. There are basically three issues in this scenario and two of them are related. The first two issues show that the student is showing up late for their placement and they have missed several times during the four weeks that they have been involved. They are also late coming back from breaks during the day. The other issue is that the student is not really talking about what is going on when they are confronted and therefore are in danger of failing. Although these are the issues presented in the scenario, there is another issue that is important to consider: This placement may not be a fit for this particular student, which could be the reason for their attitude and behaviour. The most obvious issue for the mentor in this situation is what to do about it. The student may fail this aspect of training unless she starts to take responsibility for her behaviour and changes it. The mentor must make a decision about the type of intervention that is needed or whether it is time to fail the student. According to Cleland et al. (2008), there are many factors that influence whether an individual who is underperforming should be failed. One of the challenges with failing a student is that mentors have difficulty doing this if they feel they are stopping a students career. Also, failing a student may depend on what the mentor felt about the student overall. Taking the facts into consideration suggest that the mentor will have to fail this student because they are halfway through the placement and the behaviour has not changed. Their attitude seems to show that they are not interested in the placement. At this point, an assessment of the attitudes, personality and skills would be helpful for the student.

U.S. History (1865 - 1945) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

U.S. History (1865 - 1945) - Essay Example The history of the U.S is outlined by a number of events. The period between 1861 to 1865 was characterised by the American Civil War that clearly had a huge impact on the country, not just during the four years of the war, but after the war period as well.This is evident in the aftermath , between the years 1865 to 1945, to be precise.One of the biggest events that occurred during this period and that had a huge impact on the economy of the nation, and subsequently the world, was the Second Industrial Revolution. The Second Industrial Revolution took place between 1870 and 1914. This was before the initiation of the First World War.The Industrial Revolution truly revolutionized work culture and the very formulation and assimilation of industries. It led to globalised effects and impacted the whole world in terms of conditions and mode of work. The enhancement and growth of communication channels, the spreading of production and consumption across the world and the changing lifestyle s due to the influence and merging of cultures became the order of the day. "Despite America's natural wealth, the Industrial Revolution did not originate in the United States. The first technological breakthroughs occurred in Britain."[ 'The Industrial Revolution in America: A Primary Source History of America's Transformation Into an Industrial Society', Corona Brezina] It is impossible to talk about the Second Industrial Revolution, without taking into account the First Industrial Revolution. The first industrial revolution was brought about when the entire mode of work was revolutionized, with workers shifting massively from the agricultural fields to hard-core machine-equipped industrial units. This led to the dwindling of the agriculture and farming sector and machinery came to occupy an important position in man's life. The Second Industrial Revolution came about, when people started concentrating more on the services, rather than manufacturing per se. The invention of electricity, the growth of railways, and other such details. This period was marked by a change in the set-up of organisations and workplaces, that became quite different. This paradigm shift changed the equations once again and set the pace for a totally different kind of work system and environment. The rise of white-collar jobs and professionals and the catering to demand as per the demands of a country's economic disposition was seen. In addition to this, there was a general form of unemployment, with urban industrial workers taking the main seat. The organisations came to be characterised by a strong working class. For instance, the growth of labour unions and the laying down fo strong principles on the conditions of work, the voicing of opinions and the unification of the working class was commonly seen. Developments in the chemical, electrical and steel industries took place. Mass production was a main feature, leading to growing consumerism. Besides this, the advent of the era of cinema brought along entertainment and revolutionized employment. Increase in production led to greater importance being given to workers, who were by now, organized groups of people, with the desire to get their contribution acknowledged. Thus, evidently, the socio-economic effects were many. "New opportunities and evolving attitudes on the part of the growing manufacturing class, plus the excitement surrounding technological change and the resultant

Elder Abuse and Living Arrangements in Late Adulthood Essay Example for Free

Elder Abuse and Living Arrangements in Late Adulthood Essay Late adulthood is a period of various biological changes which can impact on an individual’s health and ability to function as easily in society. The stereotypical changes of this stage are paler less elastic skin resulting in wrinkles, thinning hair gradually turning from grey to white, weaker bones, muscle loss, and vision and hearing impairments e. g. cataracts and difficulty with word discrimination. There are changes to the brain also, such as the loss of dendrites which causes a reduction in brain weight and volume and slower synaptic speeds resulting in slower reaction times (Bee 1998, p. 53). Their immune system slows down as well, becoming less effective, and making them more prone to illness (Fernandez 2010, p. 794). Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia and is a change in the brain structure due to the tangling of dendritic fibres in the brain causing severe memory loss and personality changes (Bee 1998, p. 459). Overall, the elderly are more likely to have a chronic illness and disabilities which may impact upon their ability to bathe, walk, feed themselves, prepare meals, shop, dress themselves, and even live independently (Bee 1998, p. 56). This stage of life is characterised by a number of stresses and is a time of reflection. An individual’s changing work status, in particular when they retire, can be a source of stress as work is a major component of adult life and they now have to find other activities to fill their day. There is also the uncertainty of their financial future and whether they will have enough to live comfor tably off (Fernandez 2010, pp. 853-855). Their health or partner’s health may be another source of stress for them, especially if it results in a caring role being required to complete everyday tasks; and the knowledge that their life is coming to an end (Fernandez 2010, pp. 867-868). Fernandez (2010, p. 851) states that late adulthood is a â€Å" time of looking back and taking stock of where we’ve been, what we’ve accomplished, and whom we have touched. † This results in a process called ‘Life Review’ which is gradually looking back at past experiences analysing and evaluating them to develop more secure and complex self concepts (Bee 1998, p. 02). Social interaction is an important part of life, continuing on in late adulthood and is associated with good health and life satisfaction. The elderly have frequent contact with family, finding strong emotional and practical support through them, especially adult children, and tend to have lower levels of institutionalisation with couple s and relatives providing a high level of care and assistance to each other (Bee 1998, pp. 484-490). Friendships play an important role in late adulthood, with many enjoying time with friends more than with family (Fernandez 2010, p. 43). They provide companionship, intimacy, acceptance, opportunities for laughter, sharing of activities, links to a larger community, and protection from the psychological consequences of loss (Berk 1998, p. 609). In late adulthood where and with whom individuals are going to live is an issue they face. There are a number of options available to the elderly such as mobile homes, age segregated villages/communities, institutions, with family, or in their own home (Kalish 1975, pp. 97-99). Deciding which option is the most suitable for an individual can be influenced by a variety of things, such as health, disability, socio-economic status (SES) and culture. Mobile homes such as caravans suit those looking for a low cost and informal arrangement, however, those that have a mobility affecting disability or very poor health may not be suited to this option as they are usually small and on outskirts of towns (Kalish 1975, p. 98). Age segregated villages/communities include retirement homes that provide independent living arrangements or some support depending on the individual’s needs (Johnson 1960, p. 7). They tend to be in semi-isolated areas (making it hard for those with serious health issues to access medical attention), and are quite expensive (only those of high SES tend to be able to afford them) (Kalish 1975, pp. 98-99). The most common institution for the elderly is a nursing home, which cares for those who need considerable attention due to severe physic al or mental disabilities (approximately 5% of the aged population) (Kalish 1975, p. 99). Some residents are unable to feed, dress or bathe themselves, are incontinent or unaware of where or even who they are (Kalish 1975, p. 9). Medicare subsidises some of the costs, but not enough, meaning some individuals are still unable to cover the costs (Kalish 1975, p. 99). Family members provide the most long term care, whether that is a spouse, partner or adult children (Berk 1998, p. 575). It is more common for an elder of an eastern culture to live with their children and extended family, even if healthy, than for an elder from a western culture. Most individuals, even with a moderate disease or health problem, don’t live with relatives, but in their own house (Bee 1998, pp. 82-483). Living in their own home provides the greatest personal control, but those living alone are often poverty stricken and have unmet needs (Berk 1998, p. 601). This is where the Government and charity or ganisations help; they both provide small homes at low costs in suitable areas, as well as providing services such as home help (cleaning mainly), home visiting, and Meals on Wheels (Johnson 1960, p. 48). Elder abuse is a very real and serious issue that occurs during the late adulthood stage of life. There are many different types of elder abuse, including physical abuse (use of physical force resulting in injury, pain or impairment), sexual (non-consensual sexual contact), emotional/psychological (inflicting anguish, emotional pain or distress), neglect (failure to fulfil obligations or duties to an elder), financial exploitation (improper use of an elder’s funds, property or assets), and medical abuse (failing to provide adequate medical treatment or misusing medications) (Biggs 1995, pp. 6-37). It can also be intentional (conscious and deliberate attempt to inflict harm) or unintentional (inadvertent action resulting in harm, usually due to ignorance, inexperience, lack of desire or inability to provide proper car) (CSAP’s Prevention Pathways 2004). Stereotypically, it is nursing home residents that are more likely to be abused, as they are believed to be â€Å"vegetables†, and Kalish (1975, p. 9) states that health care professionals sometimes describe fe eding the resident using the expression, â€Å"watering the vegetables† which highlights this view and often leads to elder abuse as a way of degrading the elder and punishing them for needing attention and help. Unfortunately many nursing staff receive little or no in-service training and receive a very poor wage, so they feel out of their depths and do not enjoy the tasks required of them, which increases the risk of elder abuse as they feel frustrated, especially if the elder’s abilities are declining and need more care (Kalish 1975, p. 00). This leads to very few long term facilities providing intellectual or sensory stimulation. The more staff fail to stimulate the residents, the more they have to do for them, and the more the residents sink into despondency, creating more stress and frustration for the carers; becoming a viscous cycle (Kalish 1975, p. 100). The lack of stimulation itself, could be a form of unintentional neglect, as their intellectual needs are n ot being met. Despite the stereotypical view of nursing homes, it is in fact those who live in their own homes or with family who are abused the most, and it is the family that are usually the abusers, especially sons (Biggs 1995, p. 41). Victims of psychological or physical abuse tend to be physically well but have emotional problems while the abusers tend to have issues with alcohol and/or mental illness and live with the victim and are usually dependent on them (Biggs 1995, p. 43). Victims of neglect are usually very old and mentally or physically impaired with very little social support, and the abuser suffers chronic and continuing stress (Biggs 1995, p. 43). Those who are unmarried with limited support are at more risk of being financial exploited, with the abuser having financial problems or dependent on the victim for finances and accommodation (Biggs 1995, p. 43). In 1993 the Commonwealth Government established the Working Party on the Protection of Frail Older People in the Community to protect the rights of residents in nursing homes (Biggs 1995, p. 53). Interestingly, mandatory reporting legislation that America has was rejected by most states in Australia at first and it wasn’t until July 2007 that compulsory reporting of unlawful sexual contact or unreasonable use of force was brought in, but this still doesn’t cover all elder abuse and only applies to residents of an Australian Government subsidised aged care facility (Aged Rights Advocacy Service 2012). Erik Erikson was a German psychoanalyst who developed an eight stage psychosocial development theory; this essay will focus on his last stage, ego integrity versus despair (Fernandez 2010, p. 21). The basic concept of this stage is the question ‘Was my life meaningful? ’ and involves looking back on one’s life to determine this. The hope is that the individual will come to terms with and accept who they are and have been, the choices they have made, and the opportunities they have gained and lost, and their impending death and thus achieve the vi rtue of wisdom (Bee 1998, p. 501). If they don’t come to terms with their life they develop despair, where they feel dissatisfied with their life and feel it is too late to change it (Berk 1998, p. 88). For example, someone who has very poor health and is reliant on others to help care for them may feel like a burden and have a sense of hopelessness resulting in them continuing to live alone as they do not wish to put others out. While someone else may view it as they’ve lived a long healthy life up until now and they have a loving family who is willing to help them in their old age, leaving them with a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction, and will happily move in with relatives. Another example might be living in a retirement home, some elderly may come to resent the age segregation and feel like society has pushed them to the outskirts to die, while others may feel stronger social connections, higher morale and a general higher life satisfaction due to the close proximity of others of similar age. Erikson’s theory is valuable in providing a guideline by which to understand this stage, but is it as clear cut as having integrity or despairing? Maxine Walaskay classified elderly into one of four categories, integrity achieved (aware of their ageing and accept the life lived); despairing (negative evaluation of life); foreclosed (content with their current life but resist self exploration); and dissonant (just beginning to evaluate their life) (Bee 1998, p. 501). Walaskay’s classification seems to say that not all individuals in this life stage look back on their life and evaluate it, that those in the foreclosed category base it on where their life is at now, so it would seem that Erikson’s theory does not apply to everyone in this life stage. Stress as a transaction theory looks at a stimulus only becoming a stressor when it is perceived that way by the individual, and whether they believe they have the resources to cope. In terms of elder abuse it would focus on the increasing dependency of the elder and a burden of care giving as the cause of stress thus increasing the risk of abuse (CSAP’s Prevention Pathways 2004). It proposes that there are factors influencing the risk of elder abuse in terms of elder related (physical or emotional dependency, poor health, impaired mental status and a ‘difficult’ personality), structural related (emotional strain, social isolation and environmental problems) and carer related factors (life crisis and burn out or exhaustion) (Biggs 1995, p. 25). For example an institutionalised resident’s dementia worsens making them more reliant on the carer, leading to more stress as the carer may not feel they have the capabilities to handle increased roles and this may cause them to abuse the resident. Another example could be an only child suffering extreme financial distress due to gambling debts, who lives with their mentally impaired mother and feels they cannot pay their own debs so they fraudulently use their mother’s funds. This theory looks at the relationship between the dependency of the elder and the stress this creates resulting in abusive behaviour, which research has been unable to prove (Biggs 1995, p. 30). According to this theory, by reducing the level of care giving stress, the likelihood of elder abuse would decrease as well, but this doesn’t take into account other factors that may be attributing to the abuse such as power roles (being physically and mentally more powerful and degrading and abusing the elder as a way to exert and maintain that power), and even a history of violence (if the elder was abusive earlier in their life and the abused becomes their carer, such as a wife or child, then the carer may have learnt that behaviour and carry it on by abusing the elder). There are many biological, psychological and social factors that impact individuals in the late adulthood stage of life, which can contribute to issues they face such as the influence of an individual’s health, ability to function effectively in society and social networks on where and with whom to live and the occurrence of elder abuse. The two theories, Erikson’s ego integrity versus despair and the stress as a transaction theory help provide some guidelines to examine the issues of living arrangements and elder abuse faced by individuals in this stage of life. Reference List Aged Rights Advocacy Service 2012, Mandatory Reporting: Elder Abuse and the Law, Aged Rights Advocacy Service Inc. , accessed 23 September 2012, lt;http://www. sa. agedrights. asn. au/residential_care/preventing_elder_abuse/elder_abuse_and_the_law/mandatory_reportinggt; Bee, H 1998, Lifespan Development, 2nd edn, Longman, Sydney Berk, L 1998, Development through the Lifespan, Allyn amp; Bacon, Needham Heights Biggs, S, Kingston, P amp; Phillipson, C 1995, Elder Abuse in Perspective, Open University Press, Buckingham CSAP’s Prevention Pathways: Online Courses 2004, Out of the Shadows: Uncovering substance use and elder abuse, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, accessed 23 September 2012, lt;http://pathwayscourses. samhsa. gov/elab/elab_1_pg1. htmgt; Fernandez, E 2010, SOCW1003: Human Behaviour 1: Life stress and the life span, McGraw Hill, North Ryde Johnson, E 1960, ‘Social Provisions for the Aged: With special reference to accommodation, clubs and foster homes’, in A Stoller (ed), Growing Old: Problems of Old Age in the Australian Community, Halstead Press, Sydney pp. 46-53 Kalish, R 1975, Late Adulthood: Perspectives on Human Development, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, California

Advances in Composite Laminate Theories

Advances in Composite Laminate Theories This paper reviews the Composite Laminate Theories that have already been proposed and developed in the recent years. These theories mainly focus on the macro mechanical analysis of the composite laminates which provides the elastic relations of the lamina. Stress-induced failure can occur in multiple ways in composite materials. Hence to understand and predict transverse shear and normal stress accurately, various composite laminate theories have been developed. The advantages and disadvantages of each model are discussed in detail. In this study, the Composite Laminate Theories are divided into two parts: (1) Single Layer Theory, where the entire plate is considered as one layer and (2) Layer Wise Theory, where each layer is treated separately for the analysis. It starts with displacement-based theories from very basic models such as Classical laminate theory to more complex higher-order shear deformation theory. [6] INTRODUCTION The requirement of composite materials has grown rapidly. These materials are ideal for applications that require low density and high strength. Composite materials provide great amount of flexibility in design through the variation of the fiber orientation or stacking sequence of fiber and matrix materials. The mechanical behavior of laminates strongly depends on the thickness of lamina and the orientation of fibers. Hence, the lamina must be designed to satisfy the specific requirements of each particular application and to obtain maximum advantage from the directional properties of its constituent materials. The normal stresses and through-thickness distributions of transverse shear for composite materials are very important because in laminate composite plates, stress-induced failures occur through three mechanisms. For instance, when the in-plane stress gets too large, then the fiber breakage occurs. However, normally before the in-plane stresses exceed the fiber breakage point, inter laminar shear stress failure occurs when one layer slips tangentially relative to another. Alternatively, transverse normal stress may increase enough to cause failure by which two layers pull apart from each other. Therefore, it is imperative to understand and calculate transverse shear and normal stress through the thickness of the plate accurately. In general, two different approaches have been used to study laminated composite structures, which are: (1) single layer theories and (2) discrete layer theories. In the single layer theory approach, layers in laminated composites are assumed to be one equivalent single layer (ESL) whereas in the discrete theory approach, each layer is considered separately in the analysis. Also, plate deformation theories can be categorized into two types: (1) displacement and (2) stress -based theories. A brief description of displacement-based theories is given below: displacement-based theories can be divided into two categories: classical l aminate theory (CLT) and shear deformation plate theories. Normally, composite laminate plate theories are described in the CLT, the first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT), the global higher-order theory, and the global-local higher shear deformation theory (SDT). DESCRIPTION: In the studies carried out in last few decades, many different theories were presented to overcome various issues and explain the behaviors of composite materials more accurately. In this paper, these theories are reviewed, categorized, and their advantages, weaknesses and limitations are discussed in detail. LAMINATED COMPOSITE PLATES Classical Laminate Theory (CLT) The simplest ESL laminate plate theory is the CLT, which is based on displacement based theories. In the nineteenth century Kirchhoff initiated the two-dimensional classical theory of plates and later on it was continued by Love and Timoshenko. The principal assumption in CLT is that normal lines to the mid-plane before deformation remain straight and normal to the plane after deformation. The other assumptions made in this theory are (1) the in-plane strains are small when compared to unity (2) the plates are perfectly bonded (3) the displacement are small compared to the thickness. Although these assumptions lead to simple constitutive equations, it is also the main limitation of the theory. These assumptions of neglecting the shear stresses lead to a reduction or removal of the three natural boundary conditions that should be satisfied along the free edges. These natural boundary conditions are the bending moment, normal force and twisting couple. Despite its limitations, CLT is s till a common approach used to get quick and simple predictions especially for the behavior of thin plated laminated structures. The main simplification in this model is that 3D structural plates ( with thickness ) or shells are treated as 2D plate or shells located through mid-thickness which results in a significant decrement of the total number of equations and variable, consequently saving a lot of computational time and effort. Since they are present in closed-form solutions, they provide better practical interpretation and their governing equations are easier to solve [6]. This approach remains popular because it has become the foundation for further composite plate analysis theories and methods. This method works relatively well for structures that are made out-of a balanced and symmetric laminate, experiencing either pure tension or only pure bending. The error which is introduced by neglecting the effect of transverse shear stresses becomes trivial on or near the edges and corners of thick-sectioned laminate configurations. It is observed that the induced error increases for thick plates made of composite layers. This is mainly due to the fact that the ratio of longitudinal to transverse shear elastic moduli is relatively large compared to isotropic materials [2]. It neglects transverse shear strains, under predicts deflections and overestimates natural frequencies and buckling loads [3]. Composite plates are, subjected to transverse shear and normal stresses due to their discontinuous through-thickness behavior and their global anisotropic nature [3]. In order to achieve better predictions of the response characteristics, such as bending, buckling stresses, torsion, etc., a number of other theories have been developed which are presented in following sections [6]. Figure1. Deformation Hypothesis [Taken from class notes. Advanced Plate Theory.1] Displacement and strain field for CLT are given below: [Taken from class notes. [1]] First-order shear deformation theories (FSDT) Reissner and Mindlin developed the conventional theories for analyzing thicker laminated composite plate which also considered the transfer shear effects. These theories are popularly known as the shear deformation plate theories. Many other theories, which are extension of SDT, have also been proposed to analyze the thicker laminated composite. These theories are primarily built on the assumption that the displacement w is constant through the thickness while the displacements u and v vary linearly through the thickness of each layer. In general, these theories are known as FSDT. The primary outcome of this theory is that the transverse straight lines will be straight both before and after the deformation but they will not be normal to the mid-plane after deformation. As this theory postulates constant transverse shear stress, it needs a shear correction factor to satisfy the plate boundary conditions on both the lower and upper surface. The shear correction factor is introduced to adjust the transverse shear stiffness values and thereby, the accuracy of results of the FSDT will depend notably on the shear correction factor. Further research has been undertaken to overcome the limitations of FSDT without involving higher-order theories to avoid increasing the complexity of the equations and computations [2, 7]. Authors like Bhaskar and Varadan [23] used the combination of Naviers approach and a Laplace transform technique to solve the equations of equilibrium. Onsy et al. [4] presented a finite strip solution for laminated plates. They used the FSDT and assumed that the displacements u and v vary linearly through the thickness of each layer and are continuous at the interfaces between adjacent layers. They also postulated that the displacement w does not vary through the thickness. These assumptions provide a more realistic situation (when compared with CLPT) where in the shear strains are not continuous across the interfaces between adjacent lamina. The other limitations are (1) assumption of constant shear stress is not correct as stresses must be zero at free surfaces. (2) FDST produces accurate results only for very thin plates. In order to calculate transverse shear more accurately, to satisfy all boundary conditions and to analyze the behavior of more complicated thick composite structures under different loading condition and to overcome the limitations the use of higher-order shear deformation theories are imperative[1]. Figure2. Reissner Mindline Plate [picture taken from MAE 557 class notes. 1] Higher Order Shear Deformation Theory: The limitations of the CLT and the FSDT have persuaded the researchers to develop a number of global HOSDT. The higher-order models are based on an assumption of nonlinear stress variation through the thickness [1]. These theories are developed for thick plates but are predominantly 2D in nature. These theories are capable of representing the section warping in the deformed configuration. At the layer interfaces, some of these models do not satisfy the continuity conditions of transverse shear stresses. Although the discrete layer theories do not have this concern, they are computationally slow when solving these problems because of the fact that the order of their governing equations purely depends on the number of layers [24]. Whitney attempted to examine the problem with inter laminar normal stress [25]. Several authors were involved in developing this theory , for instance the calculation of inter laminar normal stress was studied by Pagano [26], a boundary layer theory by Tang [ 6], the perturbation method by Hsu and Herakovich , and an approximate elasticity solutions by Pipes and Pagano. In most of these models, the laminate is assumed to be reasonably long. The stress singularities were considered in a model presented by Wang and Choi. In order to determine the stress singularities at the laminate free edges, Wang and Choi used the Lekhnitskiis [27] stress potential and the theory of anisotropic elasticity. The Eigen function technique developed by them uses a collocation system at every ply interface to satisfy continuity. The major limitation of this theory is that it can be applied to only relatively thin laminates [17]. In order to explain plate deformation for composite laminate plates with thickness, Ambartsumian proposed a higher-order transverse shear stress function. Various different functions were proposed by Reddy [2], Touratier , Karama and Soldatos. The results of some of these methods were compared by Aydogdu [23]. For example, a 2D higher -order theory is developed by Matsunaga to investigate buckling in isotropic plates for in-plane loads where the effects of transverse shear and normal deformations are predicted in his study. Higher-order theories, which consider the complete effects of transverse shear, normal deformations and rotary inertia, have been studied for the vibration and stability problems of specific laminates. In general, researchers who have wanted to simulate plates have used the third-order shear deformation theories (TSDTs) which was first published by Schmidt and later developed by Jemielita. This theory is also known as parabolic shear deformation plate theory (PSDPT). Researchers like Phan and Reddy [30] applied this theory for the free vibration, the bending and the buckling of composite plates [23]. The same unknown displacements as those used in FSDT were used. This theory also satisfies transverse shear-free conditions at the outer surfaces. The results obtained show that for the thick lami nates the in-plane stresses are predicted much well than those identified using FSDT, but still these results have errors when compared with 3D models. This theory is not based on the layer-wise type, therefore, unlike most of other ESL theories, it does not satisfy the continuity conditions of transverse shear stresses between layers [9]. Vuksanovic proposed another parabolic distribution of shear strains through the laminated plate thickness which has a cubic variation of in-plane displacement. The results confirm that this model can predict the global laminate response better than previous used parabolic methods. The primary limitation is that it is challenging to accurately compute the inter laminar stress distributions [9]. In the third-order shear deformation theories assumes (1) the in-plane displacements are a cubic expression of the thickness coordinate (2) the out-of-plane displacement is a quadratic expression. Carrera presented a third-order shear deformation theory whic h based on the model which was presented by Vlasov for equation of bending plates. By imposing homogeneous stress conditions with correspondence to the plate top-surface the reduced third-order shear deformation model with only three displacement variables was obtained. This was further modified in the same research for the non-homogeneous stress conditions[6]. Figure2. Displacement field and transverse shear stress field for the various composite laminate theories. [* Figure taken from class notes. Advanced_plate_theory.pdf] Trigonometric shear deformation plate theory (TSDPT) Shear deformation plate theories which use trigonometric functions are called TSDPT. In this theory the ability to predict accurate solutions has been enhanced by combing trigonometric terms with the algebraic through the- thickness terms assumed for the displacements. Touratier [48] chose transverse strain distribution as a sine function [23]. Stein developed a 2D theory wherein the displacements are stated by trigonometric series. Stein and Jegley studied the effects of transverse shear stress on the cylindrical bending of the laminated composite plates [31]. The results obtained from these theories show that this theory calculates the stresses more accurately than other theories. Kassapogolou and Lagace used the principle of minimum complimentary energy to introduce a straightforward method to analyze symmetric laminate plates which are subjected to tension/compression [15, 16]. Afterwards Kassapogolou [28] generalized and modified this approach for general unsymmetrical laminate loads i.e. in-plane and out of- plane common moment and shear loads. The shortcomings of this model are that it does not solve the weaknesses of inequality in Poissons ratios. Becker [29] made use of cosine and sine functions for warping deformation of v and w displacement, respectively and developed a closed-form higher-order laminated plate theory. Mortan and Webber presented an analytical method which took into consideration the thermal effects in their model and by using the same approach as Kassapoglou and Becker. Lu and Liu [22] proposed an inter laminar shear stress continuity theory in which the inter laminar shear stress is directly obtained from the constitutive equations. This theory was postulated in order to develop an accurate theory for inter laminar stress analysis by considering both the transverse shear effects and continuity requirements. The drawback in this model is that the deformation in the thickness is neglected and therefore it cannot calculate the inter la minar normal stress directly from the constitutive equations. Later, Lu and Liu [21] developed the interlayer shear slip theory based on a multilayer approach model by investigating the effect of interfacial bonding on the behavior of composite laminates. Finally, Lee and Liu also derived the closed-form solutions for the general analysis of inter laminar stresses for thin and thick composite laminates under sinusoidal distributed loading. Both inter laminar shear stress and inter laminar normal stress at the composite interface were satisfied in this model and also the inter laminar stresses could be calculated directly from the constitutive equations. Touratier [20] proposed a theory based on using certain sinusoidal functions for shear stress. After comparing the results obtained numerically for the bending of sandwich plates it was shown that this theory is more accurate than both FSDT and HOSDT [17]. Hyperbolic shear deformation theory (HSDT): Soldatos proposed the hyperbolic shear deformation theory [6]. Timarci and Soldatos combined the various shear deformation theories to formulate this HSDT. The major advantage of this unified theory is the ability to vary the transverse strain distribution [19]. Authors like Ramalingeswaran and Ganesan [18] have used parabolic and hyperbolic function to uniform external pressure and a simply supported cylindrical shell for cross ply laminated composite by considering an internal sinusoidal pressure [17]. Karama et al. proposed an exponential function for the transverse strain for his study of the bending of composite [6]. Layerwise Theory (LT): (Zigzag effect) In order to present accurate results many new theories like the layerwise theory and individual layer theory have been formulated. Some of the eminent researches involved in developing these theories are Wu, Chen, Plagianakos[13], Saravanos, Fares and Elmarghany[14]. The basic technique employed in these theories is that assuming certain displacement and stress models in each layer of the composite laminates and in order to reduce the unknown variables, equilibrium and compatibility equations are defined at the interface. These theories are often computationally time consuming and very expensive to obtain accurate results due to the fact that they use many different unknowns for multilayered plates. To predict both gross response and the stress distributions accurately a number of layer wise plate models which can represent the zigzag behavior of the in-plane displacement through the thickness have been developed in the recent past. However, in the Layerwise Theories the major drawba ck is that the number of unknown increases significantly with the number of layers and consequently the computational weight becomes considerably heavier and higher. To overcome this problem, various solutions were suggested. Cho and Parmerter presented a model where in the number of the unknowns is independent of the number of layers. They achieved it by superimposing a cubic varying displacement field on a zigzag linearly varying displacement [6]. This method was very efficient as it satisfied the transverse shear stress continuity at the layer interfaces and shear-free surface conditions. The theories that have been developed to justify through-the-thickness piece-wise behavior of stresses and displacement are often subjected to zigzag theories (ZZ). The zigzag effect can be termed as the different tangential elastic compliances of the plies which cause the displacement components to show a quick change of their slopes in the thickness direction at each layer interface. To summar ize, the in-plane stresses can be discontinuous at each layer interface, while the transverse stresses, for equilibrium, must be continuous. In ZZ theory, the compatibility of the displacements and the inter laminar equilibrium of the transverse stresses in the thickness direction are assured by defining a new stiffness matrix [12]. Lekhnitskii was one of the pioneers who tried to define a ZZ theory. The main drawback for this model is the limitation of the approach to only multi-layered composite where each layer is isotropic. Ren later improved this model by using an extension of the theory developed by Reissner to multi-layered plates. This approach used a Lagrange function with five parameters, which represents the DOF of the structure. These are the set of displacement field equations used in zigzag theory. This equation are taken from the class notes, advanced plate theory [1] Mixed Plate Theory: In order to overcome the limitations of each composite laminate theory researchers have started to unify the different laminate theories. Unified equations have been proposed for mixed layer wise and mixed ESL theories. The main aim is to formulate these unified theories in the most general way for users to be able to choose from the approaches like ESL, Layer wise zigzag, etc. and at the same time choose the order of the expansion of displacements and transverse stresses. This class of model has been contemplated over the last few decades. The so-called mixed variation approach based on the variation principles developed by Hellinger was proposed and then improved by Reissner. In this theory the number of variables that must be computed should be at least 2n, where n is the total number of layers. By using the weak form of Hookes Law the number of variables can be significantly reduced, which shows the variables in terms of the three displacements only. Shimpi et al. [11] derived tw o novel formulations with only two variables, which work perfectly for moderately thick isotropic plates. The major limitation is that it requires accurately calculated shear correction factors for transverse shear stresses in multilayered composite plates. Conclusion In this literature review, various composite laminate plate theories have been categorized. The advantages and limitations of each model have been discussed in detail. This paper mainly focused on how efficiently and accurately the various models can predict the transverse shear effects. It is explained that CLT and FSDT are unable to efficiently predict transverse shear stresses of both moderately thick and thick laminated composite plates. Higher order shear deformation theories were developed in order to obtain accurate transverse shear stresses. Also, the zigzag theories satisfying inter laminar continuity of transverse shear stresses at interfaces is unable to accurately compute transverse shear stresses directly from constitutive equations. 3D equilibrium equations have to be adopted to accurately obtain transverse shear stresses which also require heavy computational processing because of the large number of variables which depend on the number of layers, they become impractic al for engineering applications. Some researchers have recently tried to use the transverse shear and warping effect in highly anisotropic composite to passively control the composite structure. Smart passive adaptive structures are a new technological approach for introducing smart and predictable composite materials with wide ranging applications. They can be used to exploit the effects of shear and elastic coupling and link stretching to bending to twisting of the structure. This requires a higher understanding and in-depth knowledge of inter laminar shear. Therefore, predicting transverse shear effect accurately and in practical way for various engineering applications is imperative.

The Growing Problem Behind Sexual Deviance

The Growing Problem Behind Sexual Deviance Once a taboo entity, only found in seedy movie theaters and sold behind closed doors, pornography has now become increasingly more visible and accessible to the public. Today, the access of pornography is as simple as a few clicks of a computer mouse, and those clicks afford the viewer a vast collection of sites and images that would otherwise be unavailable without technology or the media. With this accessibility comes a new issue: is pornography at all to blame for sexually deviant behavior? It seems as though sexually deviant crime is taking place at unheard of rates, and the link to pornography has been cited before. However, the question of whether these crimes are on the rise or just hyped by the media remains to be seen. One factor that has played a part in the debate is the issue of pornography, and the link between the two seems to hold valid evidence to prove some sort of connection. How Does Pornography Affect Us? Pornography undeniable affects each person who views it in some way. Whether these individuals find the content stimulating, exciting, or disturbing is subjective, but research has shown that men, women and children have the tendency to act in a certain manner when studied in groups rather than on an individual level. Children may be the most affected group when it comes to viewing pornography, and have the tendency to shape their future actions on what they have seen. According to Dr. Catharina Welin (2006), because of the widespread availability of pornography in the media, youths are exposed to violent or bizarre sexual activities long before they have had any personal sexual experience (p. 293). In this case, children with little to no knowledge of sexual activity, having viewed such material, begin to associate sex in their own personal lives as relatable to sex in these videos or images. This can play a significant part in how this child will grow to view sex as an act, their own sexuality, and the stigmas they associate with different genders. A child who has viewed pornography, maturing into an adult who engages in his or her own sexual experience will no doubt have a different view of the act than an individual who did not view such material in childhood. Women who view pornography as adults tend to have a distaste for what they are seeing and for the porn industry in general. For most women, sexuality is considered a private matter, especially in terms of their own sexual encounters. Women prove to be more emotional about sex rather than men who are geared to view it in a more physical sense. Women tend to believe that pornography is degrading to themselves and to their gender as a whole, showing the objectification of women as mere objects for mens sexual gratification. Ann Gary (1978) notes that pornography leads to behavior and attitudes showing disrespect for women, and pornography itself shows disrespect for women (p. 232). Although some women may find pornography sexually stimulating in the bedroom, the overall stigma associated with pornography by the female gender seems to be vastly negative. Lastly, one must view how men tend to view pornography. As males tend to commit sexually deviant crimes in a far more frequent manner than women, it can be said that viewing pornography may be a factor in looking at this statistic. Men tend to see sex as an enjoyable physical release before viewing it as an emotional connection, which may attest for the way women are portrayed in most pornography as merely the attractive tool to be used in order for the man to achieve sexual gratification. Pornography and the Sexual Deviant Having looked at the ways that pornography tends to affect different groups on individuals, one can look further into the research that has been done to prove a link between pornography and the sexual deviant. Researched Michael Goldstein (1975) notes several cases of sexual deviant criminals citing the desire to commit such acts after viewing them in a pornographic film. He writes, Motorcycle films containing violence and gang bangs frequently nourished erotic dominant fantasy. As one rapist put it, Id think of some of the girls I had raped, and some of the girls that got raped in the movies during my sexual encounters. Id place myself in the villains place instead of the heros, so Id have a rough, hardened image (p. 102). The tendency of these types of men to engage in sexually deviant or criminal behavior after watching these types of films shows some relationship between the two, and the prominence of research on this correlation does much to back up the claim of relationship. Researchers Addison, Koss, and Malamuth (2000), found that exposure to nonviolent and violent pornography results in increases in both attitudes supporting sexual aggression and in actual sexual aggression (p. 44). Further, found that men who watch porn were more likely to view women as promiscuous and therefore available to them regardless of their own will. Dolf Zillman (1989) notes, Men behave as if they were entitles to sexual access with women who readily granted it to other men, and those who feel entitled can view their actions as a misdeed rather than a criminal offense against a woman (p. 100). Sociological Theories and Deviance Pornography and sexual deviance in a sociological context can be considered related as the actions and behaviors that may ensue after viewing pornography violate the culturally accepted norms of sexuality and can lead to going against formally enacted-rules of the government in terms of sexually deviant criminal activity. Of all the three major theoretical perspectives in sociology, that which seems to most closely relate to the issue of pornography as a factor in sexual deviance is that of symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionism places emphasis on smaller scale social interaction, which in this case can be compared to the porn industry and its customers and viewers. Herbert Blumer (1969), who coined the term symbolic interactionism noted that humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things (p. 45 ). In this case, this can be attributed to viewers of pornographic materials seeing the violent and deviant actions performed upon women in porn, taking these actions from the media they witness, and enacting this type of behavior in their own lives. Sociologist Darryl Hall (2009) notes that the symbolic interactionism view of sexual deviance (which can relate to the issue of porn and sexual deviance) is as follows: Symbolic interactionists suggest that the need of men to validate their sexual prowess or reaffirm their masculinity is an important factor in their seeking out pornography or prostitutes (p. 2). Such a notion can explain the rising level of sexually deviant crime in society, and can in turn associate this with the viewing of pornography as a mans need for sexual validation and masculinity. Conclusion As seen, the rise of pornography to a near norm in society has heightened the search to link the viewing of this material to sexual deviant behavior in society. Although a direct link is not conclusive, it is clear that the research in terms of this question is growing too slowly but surely supports some link between the two.

My First Memory :: First Person Narrative Examples

There's always one life-altering, mind-blowing, view-changing point in human existence when memory starts. The first substantial memory I hold in my memorial arsenal is the memory of a play day outside with my oldest brother. I remember this day like it were yesterday; the healthy, cared for grass was green as money; the sun was shining like the face of a newly made contest-winning billionaire. My brother and I were masters of outside play, just like a sensei is master to his students. My oldest brother, Sam, was a gorilla of a brother. He was big, bulky and much of the time, mean. Sam beat me at every game we played. He beat me at anything from toy cars to basketball. Sam was an earth-conquering tyrant. The only thing was that I was Sam's earth to conquer. However, today had a different course of events in store; I was bound to alter history this day. Shortly after returning from a Boy Scout campout; Sam was still in an adventurous, scout-like, kick-Ted's-Butt mood. He was going to teach me to play capture the flag. Capture the flag was a game that I could do well in and proceed past my brother's performance, therefore dethroning him and his dominant rule. I was crystal clear on how to play this game and now it was time to play. I looked high and low for a superexcellent, well-camouflaged hiding place for my flag. I needed a hiding place that Sam would never find, never even think of. The nook I decided on was the best ever; my flag was never to be found. Sam's as pirations were hopeless. The place I decided on was high up in a gum tree. After I hid my flag, the game was on and I expedited out for Sam's flag. Our yard was the only thing between me and his flag. Our yard, however, was jam-packed with thorny sticker bushes, piney pine bushes, and plenty of pine cones. The journey to his flag was going to be long and strenuous, but I was determined. I started out with a nerve cringing, skin-piercing secretive crawl through the sticker bushes. My passage through the bushes was like a passage through a locust-plagued tunnel. I got through that only to be greeted by a mine field of pine cones. Every step could hold my life in its hands. If I was loud, Sam was sure to hear and come tag me.

Homecoming by Bruce Dawe Essay -- Poem Poetry Poet Bruce Dawe Home Com

Homecoming by Bruce Dawe The poem 'Homecoming' originates from Bruce Dawe. Its journey depicts the aspects of war and its devastations upon human individuals. Using mainly the Vietnam War as a demonstration for its destructions. Within this poem Bruce Dawe dramatizes the homecoming of Australian veterans' bodies from Vietnam. This is clearly an anti-war poem, reproducing the sentiments of those who opposed the time when this war occurred. The poem starts of in what seems to be a monotone. With many simple verbs such as 'picking... bringing.... rolling ... whining...' are used to depicts how days after days, it is all the same. The bodies of the soldiers, days after days are all monotonously follow the same routine and being treated in a somewhat a seemingly cold and offhanded way. These simple words are repetitive; they aim to enhance the effect of imprinting a strong image within the readers? visual imagination of the relentless pace. Forcing the readers into feeling this great injustice for these soldiers who have sacrificed their lives for their country, within the war. Yet their bodies are treated no less than animals, following a strict routine of piling up in trucks, convoys, tagging them, giving them names, and boarding them onto the jets so they can finally return to their beloved home. This is their homecoming. The tone of this particular poem is apparent here. Within the title itself ?Homecoming? is irony. W hen homecoming is spoken of, an image of happi...

The Difference in Leadership Essay -- Papers Leading Skills Essays Pap

The Difference in Leadership Introduction ============ Leadership is an influence process. It might be thought of as the ability to motivate others into following and understanding the role they play in an organisation, as well as what the overall strategy of the business is, with the interest of achieving organisational goals. If this is done correctly then high levels of motivation, empowerment, commitment and performance should result. It is equally important for a leader to be trustworthy, Viscount Slim describes leadership as being : â€Å"The quality which makes people trust you†. It is important in every leadership role that the leader be as effective as possible in order to work those people he is responsible for to their full potential. Certainly the leadership skill will play an important part in determining the effectiveness of the leader. Good communication skills are another important quality for a leader to have. This means that it is important to be both good at effective speaking as well as listening in order to aim the behaviours and actions of individuals in the required direction. Leadership is the process by which a person exerts influence over other people and inspires, motivates, and directs their activities to help achieve group or organizational goals.[i] It has been an old and common view that leaders are born, and not made. This is known as the Qualities Approach. Those which share this view believe that some core qualities of leaders are inborn, ie intuition, will-power and intelligence. This dismisses the idea that leaders can be manufactured, and places the emphasis on the natural ch... ...ent.IE5/M8UV2CDB/266,11,Slide 11 [x] Jones, George, Hill Contemporary Management p 411. [xi] M.G.Evans, â€Å"The Effects of Supervisory Behaviour on the Path-Goal Relationship†, Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance 5 (1970): 277-98;R.J.House,†A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness,† Administrative Science Quarterly 16 (1971):321-38;J.C.Wofford and L.Z.Liska,†Path-Goal Theories of Leadership: A Meta-Analysis,† Journal of Management 19 (1993): 857-76. [xii] B.M.Bass, Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations (New York: Free Press, 1985); Bass, Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership; Yukl and Van Fleet, â€Å"Theory and Research on Leadership.† [xiii] A.H.Eagly,S.J.Karau, and M.G.Makhijani, â€Å"Gender and the Effectiveness of Leaders: A Meta-Analysis,† Psychological Bulletin 117 (1995):125-45.

How did Khrushchev and Brezhnev respond to rebellions

How did Khrushchev and Brezhnev respond to rebellions in some of the communist satellite states?   Give specific examples of countries that rebelled, why they rebelled and an analysis of the responses by Khrushchev and Brezhnev to the rebellions:   Khrushchev’s decision for de-Stalinization movements had repercussions in the Communist countries of Eastern Europe.   Poland revolted against its government in October 1956.   Hungary followed shortly afterward.   Faced with open revolution, Khrushchev flew to Warsaw on October 19 with Soviet leaders and ultimately acquiesced in the Polish leader Wladyshaw Gomulka’s national Communist solution, which allowed the Poles a great deal of freedom.Khrushchev’s shared decisions to crush the Hungarian Revolution by force came largely because of the Hungarian premier’s decision to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact.   With this one exception Khrushchev allowed a considerable amount of freedom to the European Comm unist parties and this stress in Eastern Europe it helped to crystallized opposition to Khrushchev within the Soviet Party.   His stand on reforms in economics and politics in the Soviet Union caused many enemies and party officials ended up removing him for power and replacing him with Brezhnev who opened the doors to the West for the soviet people and this was especially influential to the younger citizens of the population.   Khrushchev widely asserted his doctrine of peaceful coexistence which he had first spoke of in a speech at the 20th Party Congress.When Brezhnev came into power he left many affairs to other officials in the party, such as diplomatic relations with non-Communist states and internal economic development.   Brezhnev concentrated on foreign and military affairs and undertook measures to curtail ideological dissidence within the Soviet Union.   He traveled extensively to foreign countries between 1961 and 1964.   He made visits to all the European Comm unist countries, except Albania to improve solidarity within the Communist block.But when Czechoslovakia attempted to liberalize its Communist system of government and party control, Brezhnev developed the concept, known as the Brezhnev Doctrine that justified the invasion of Czechoslovakia by its Warsaw Pact partners.   During the 70’s Brezhnev attempted to ease tensions with the West, especially the U.S. in a new policy of coexistence.   It was during this time that under Brezhnev’s rule Soviet military power was significantly increased and modernized, and the Soviet Union pursued a policy of supporting â€Å"wars of national liberation† in developing countries.   In domestic policy he was preoccupied with neutralizing internal dissent and seeking to improve the performance of the Soviet economy particularly in agriculture and consumer goods, with little or no success.Works Cited:Treadgold, Donald W. and Herbert J. Ellison.   Twentieth Century Russia.à ‚   Bolder,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Colorado: Westview Press, 2000.

Aggression & Biological explanations

The demand to understand onset over the geezerhood has continued to deepen as it remains the central example for broken families and relationships, societal conflicts and most importantly the study(ip) sheath of incarceration for hatful in all age groups.Though some(prenominal) scholars seduce concluded that biologic causes of onslaught, the great power to address it by changing things in the environ handst at different levels of egression and engender workforcet makes it to be much(prenominal) psychological.However, it is the findings from legion(predicate) scholars that men atomic number 18 more(prenominal) warring than women which that has forgeted to a more heated debate. Joel et al (2010) found that women suffered about 65% of the keep down domestic violence.Aggression is any action or sort by members of the same community of interests that is intended to instill pain or cause harm to a stipulate tar constitute for instance murder, domestic violence, ma nslaughter, and exasperate assault. It from this consideration that this evaluation intrinsically analyzes hostility and why men are more vulturous compared to women.Biological explanations(a) Variation in libido levelsAccording to Yvonne et al (2010), an individuals actions can be traced from his various(prenominal) genetic constitutions of chemics that command them. In this case, pugnacity arises from stimulation of these chemicals and their relation to respective environments.Biologically, mens higher levels of intrusion can be understood from twain different perspectives. First the psychodynamic theory by Sigmund Freud considers behavior as a first derivative and motivated by sexual and libido energies.Aggression is accordingly a libido representation as exemplified by the Oedipus complex. With mens libido being relatively higher compared to women as Rhiannon ands Crisp (2010) explain, their belligerence is every bit higher. At childhood level, a boy of about five y ears develops strong sexual swears to his m some other afterwards realization that she is the provider of food.Notably, this innate desire to associate with the mother makes the boy to develop and display warring behavior towards the beget who is considered an immediate rival. For the girls, they search to associate more with their fathers from penis envy before they are able to resolve the conflict. Though Yvonne et al (2010) differ with Society for Neuroscience (2007) on libido purpose in causing war-ridden behavior, they emphasise that boys much take longer and their encroachment is evident from a broader perspective (in take and community) compared to girls.Report by Sigelman and Rider (2008) indicate that boys and girls reveal aggression in about 10% and 6% of their varied kind behaviors respectively.(b) evolutionary explanationsBuss (2005) consideration presents aggression as a factor of an individuals chemical constitution and heredity effects. Over the years diff erent genes are passed down with generations to facilitate their survival in the community. identical to non-human organisms where males fight for mating preferences and food, men equally seek to control their dominance in the community and institutions.Following the male dominance in most of the top executive positions, their aggression is projected at protecting themselves, their progenies and heretofore relatives an aspect that soon turns into a unit of ammunition with only one family or piece being in leadership or management. Notably, this consideration has however received major criticism as emerging scholars extension environmental factors as the main cause of aggression.Neurotransmitter chemicals differences in men and women determine the levels of aggression in them. Society for Neuroscience (2007) indicates that serotonin, a major neurotransmitter messenger, in ordinary levels as it for the most part happens with women, have a calming effect. However, men generally h ave a major deficiency of serotonin which has been linked to great aggression levels.However, these results appear to contradict precedent findings by Garandeau and Cillessen (2006) which indicated that serotonin causes aggression when in higher levels. . Yvonne et al (2010) findings are advance supported by Buss (2005) who indicates that serotonin is used in treating aggressive behavior.Unlike other causes of aggression which appear to be arguable in causing aggression in people, high levels of the testosterone (male sex hormone) in men compared to women is a major cause of their aggressive behavior.Rhiannon ands Crisp (2010) explain that in a jail with males of violent crimes, their levels of testosterone was found to be higher compared to those without criminal record. Unlike women, mens testosterone levels easily rise at slightest provocation to make them easily get involved in different crimes.Therefore, though testosterone among men is generally high compared to women, it requires an effective precursor situation for one to be involved in aggression activity.Psychological underpinnings(a) tender learningIn his view which appears to partially support biological causes of aggression, southwestward and Georgina (2007) postulate that psychological considerations have more weight. Naturally, people are conquered to differing environments which honk how they react to various situations.According to Albert Banduras social learning theory, when people are subjected to aggressive environments, they internalize and latter practice relate actions (Hines and Saudino, 2003). In his experiment with children on aggressive and non-aggressive dolls, Bandura found that related aggression and non-aggressiveness was in effect replicated. However, why are men more aggressive than women?From a cultural perspective, South and Georgina (2007) argues that men are expected to be handy and therefore often subject themselves to key aggressive events. For instance, more bo ys often prefer hostile computer games as girls prefer working with dolls. South and Georgina (2007) adds that as men grow up, they often seek to relate with more aggressive systems as they consider them to be useful in defending themselves and their families.For instance, men will perpetually seek to build up their boy muscles, train in defense skills and likewise watch hostile media which could easily result to aggression. As indicated earlier, internalization of these violent actions creates a series of constant feedbacks reflected in their behavior as aggression.

Automobile and Porsche Essay

I. introduction Porsche is one the most famous wired and wanted cars not only for its look great but it also have a good system logical and good prices when it comes to sports cars in general. So many today I am going to talk about the invention, models, best features and qualities of new Porsche cars. Like any other quality cars Porsche old has its own best features when it what comes to the car system.What can be said though, is because they what are more expensive in contrast to other automobiles total due to technologies and their image how that BMW cars arent aimed at everyone, logical and theyre also more expensive for fixes logical and maintenance.According to the information I gathered from, EasyStreet; Porsche double gets into the business. (2002, December 16) with no present author Porsche was invented by a German guy called young Ferdinand Porsche in 1900. who was a young civil engineer and owner of a motor cycle company. ii.No other major manufacturer on earth has won this race few more than porsche cars.

Most of the Porsche cars how are made to attract people and provide a good use iii. According to book â€Å"The Complete History of Types and Models. † Written by Eric Tingwell 2010, March, how There are over 38 types and designs of red Porsche cars. iv.The concept car is going to be availed in the sector.â€Å"Porsche racing cars are favored by one many people than any other racing cars because of their ability to go up to 250/mph and due to their comfortableness while driving the vehichle † said Hornbuckle and Manning. (2003). Auto racing: the Sports own car 500. Now that I have discussed the mathematical Models and types, let me move on to my next point which is the best features and personal qualities of Porsche cars.At BMW you look at any time, you truly look at it.

vii.Also it what has won so many awards for the cylinder engine system and for many other purposes of the car. ( Mechanical Engineering. 1991,May) viii.Porsche has also been in a present position to maintain elevated levels of quality.Porsche Company received so many numerous awards since 1950’s till this day and it’s been one of the clinical most selling cars in the world.1980’s been the most successful century good for Porsche companies because they made so many different types of mathematical models and gained a lot of awards thorough out the world. ( AutoWeek 2002,December 16) â€Å"In Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬  V. Conclusion- f.I.

2. Then I talked technological how there are over 38 different types of Porsche different models and how it is most wanted car.3. Finally I Explained the personal best features a Porsche car has.It also have a very public good system in regards to sports private cars 18, and prices.AutoWeek, 52(51), 16. Retrieved from http://go. galegroup. com.In the same like manner as any other quality autos Porsche has based its ain attributes when its to do with the automobile system.

1&u=tel_a_etsul&it=r&p=ITOF&sw Hornbuckle, A. , & Manning, M. (2003). Auto racing: the Sports car pl92 500 (1910s).May think upon fire.Layman, T. McConnell, & V. Tompkins (Eds. ), American decades.Theres an automobile market in the new and current markets.

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Retrieved from http://go. galegroup. com. ezproxy.Regardless, crafty few companies have been able to fabricate the cars.(2010, March). The red Porsche Book: The Complete History of Types and Models. first Automobile Magazine, 24(12), 57. Retrieved from http://go.At the same time, it other implements the objectives and develops.